Along with the samurai the shinobi, or ninja, are well known in the Western world. They were assassins, arsonists, saboteurs and spies rolled into one. Clad in black so that only their eyes were seen their ability to despatch targets without being seen gave them a supernatural image that has endured to the present day.

The shinobi no mono were the ninja of feudal Japan and shinobi is the alternative reading of the character nin hence the more well known term of ninja. They were hired by the daimyo to carry out tasks which their noble samurai would not do either through code of behaviour or because they were simply unable to, such as secretly gaining access to another daimyo's castle and assassinating the daimyo, committing acts of arson, or intelligence gathering. Because of their methods the ninja were both feared and despised but the techniques they employed became a necessary part of a daimyo's capacity to wage war, especially in the Sengoku or Age of Warring states period between the 15th and 17th centuries. Prince Regent Shotoku was first to reportedly use them in the 6th and 7th centuries and their last notable activity was in 1638 in the Shimabara war when they were used against 40,000 rebellious Christian peasants on the island of Kyushu. They were frequently hired by the monks of the mountains, as well as merchants and just about anyone else for a price. Ninja guilds became entrenched in Kyoto, which they practically ruled at night, and governors had to frequently check their power.

Iga and Koga provinces produced these famous (or infamous) people and are widely believed to be the ninja homelands. As to why this was the case one can look at their respective topographical features. Iga Province (today the north-western part of Mie Prefecture) was located on the main Japanese island of Honshu, a few miles east of Osaka, and was almost completely ringed by mountains. Steep passes made access to this region extremely hazardous. The inhabitants were naturally independently minded and content in their villages which nestled in the Ueno basin. Koga Province is now part of Ishikawa Prefecture and its southern border touched the northern portion of Iga. Both provinces formed a bridge between the main trade routes from the capital (in those days Kyoto) and the vast mountains of the Kii Peninsula to the south. Both Iga and Koga were politically sensitive regions and evidence points to numerous fortifications and the formation of an ikki (a league of groups joined together for mutual support and protection) in the latter from the start of the Age of Warring States (Iga also formed an ikki). Such conditions were perfect for these regions to hire themselves out as mercenaries. In fact the ninja were the only mercenaries Japanese leaders used.

The ninja lived in villages that were built to provide defence for the inhabitants with the houses of the lower-ranking members of the clan surrounding that of the headman or jonin. Beacons would be placed in strategic locations, perhaps on nearby hills on the outskirts, to warn of impending danger and a watch tower would stand in the centre of the village. The house of the jonin himself contained many secret places, hidden and concealed doors, rotating staircases, secret passages, and a whole plethora of booby traps. It goes without saying that the head ninja could use his own experience and expertise to his advantage when it came to protecting himself. Along with the jonin there were others in the ninja clans who were necessary for the machine to work. Below the headman were the chunin who were akin to executive officers and were responsible for making arrangements to hire the clan's ninja out to whoever desired them. Then there were the genin, the actual ninja assassins who went on the missions.

The ninja's mercenary activities were more or less checked once Oda Nobunaga invaded their provinces in 1581. It shows the measure of how seriously he saw the ninja of Iga province when he led an army of 46,000 to crush the ninja clans there. The survivors scattered and fled to other provinces after the invasion. Some stole away to Mikawa province where they were taken under the wing of Tokugawa Ieyasu. When he became shogun in 1603 the ninja of Iga and Koga helped the bakufu to enforce its rigid police state as well as guarding the palace of the shogun himself at Edo. They engaged groups of people in local, small scale battles to quell sedition or even to enlarge their own territorial domains. Their clandestine activities did not end there, however, as smaller groups of ninja managed to find employment under people of all classes and not just the shogunate.

Training

One did not usually seek to become a ninja, rather it was something you were born into. An extensive training programme began at a young age and would more or less continue throughout the ninja's life. He had to be incredibly fit, supple and strong so that he could scale castle walls, leap from great heights and run for long distances. He would also have to be a skilled acrobat and this probably gave rise to the myths of ninja being able to fly. For example, a technique used for climbing over a wall involved one ninja with another standing on his shoulders and using his elevated position to clamber up. Alternatively two ninja might propel another into the air by lifting his feet up and the latter using this momentum to make his own leap to 'fly' over the wall. Several ninja might also construct a human pyramid allowing the uppermost man to attain a greater height; the rest of the assassins would then 'peal' away with as little sound as possible. Along with building up strength and agility the ninja had to be an expert in unarmed combat and grappling techniques. He also had to become proficient in the large variety of weapons in the ninja's arsenal.

It was also necessary for the ninja to learn survival skills, how to purify water, and become proficient in the use of poisons. Literacy was important as the ninja had to sometimes draw maps with accompanying messages. Knowledge of various professions was an advantage as the ninja often had to adopt disguises otherwise he might arouse suspicion if, for example, he took the guise of a priest and knew nothing of their mannerisms or habits.

Ninjutsu can translate as 'the art of stealth' and embodies much of what the ninja had to learn above. But there were other specialisations of the martial art: chikairi-no-jutsu, which entailed using subterfuge to slip through enemy lines; and toiri-no-jutsu, which was the art of infiltrating castles and other fortifications, an essential skill for a ninja to learn. Being able to blend in with shadows, trees and statues was a necessity. The skills the ninja learnt were closely guarded secrets and passed down from father to son and within the fraternity. Disclosure of any of these secrets to unauthorised people was met with the harshest of sanctions, i.e. death.

Like the samurai, ninja had to condition themselves mentally to face death with defiance and to fight on to the bitter end. But should a ninja fail in his mission it was usual to commit suicide or, failing that, another ninja might be despatched to kill him so that he could not disclose any information to the enemy. This mental conditioning also gave rise to the ninja's ability, whether fact or fiction, to be able to control his breathing underwater and his heartbeat under enemy scrutiny as well as being able to remain still for hours or, it is claimed, for days.

Clothing

Because of the line of work they were in, which necessitated the use of stealth and deception to fulfill their goals, the ninja adopted a wide variety of clothing. The most obvious and most familiar to the reader will be the sinister black garb although there are no authentic records about ninja dressed in black. However, a book illustration from 1801 depicts a ninja dressed in such clothing inching his way along a rope he has just thrown across a castle moat. Artistic convention dictates that characters dressed in black signal to the viewer that they are not meant to be seen as shown by the black clothed puppeteers of the Japanese Bunraku puppet theatre. Yet in order to gain access to a castle it would be most sensible to attempt to gain access at night and dress in black from head to foot. On this basis there must be an element of truth in the traditional ninja costume.

The traditional ninja costume consisted of a tough jacket not unlike those worn in Judo and Karate and it would be tucked into a pair of trousers or kobakama, similar to those worn by samurai when on horseback. A black belt tied around the waist would keep the jacket secure. The kobakama would then be tied just below the knee and then at the base of the calf to ensure that the material would be secure and in no danger of catching on anything. Over the calves were worn cloth gaiters or kiahan in which small weapons could be concealed. For footwear the ninja would put on black tabi, which were traditional Japanese socks with a separate compartment for the big toe and had reinforced soles, and then waraji or straw sandals would be worn. Two pieces of black cloth would then create the ninja's famous headwear or cowl so that only his eyes could be seen.

As ninja were not only assassins but also spies they had to adopt cunning disguises so that they could pass into enemy territory unnoticed. A favoured disguise to wear was that of the yamabushi monks as they could often be found on the roads and were often invited into people's houses where they were expected to bestow blessings. Another favoured disguise was that of a komuso, Zen monks who wore something like a basket on their heads and played flutes. This was an excellent disguise because the 'basket' completely covered the wearer's head and would make it virtually impossible for anyone to see him. They could also take the guise of a Buddhist monk or even dancers and puppeteers who can often be found in the castle-towns of the daimyo.

Armour

Ninja sometimes wore armour underneath their clothes. This consisted of heavy cloth made into a jacket with small rings of mail or lacquered metal plates sewn onto it. They were also known to wear a hood made from the same material worn underneath the cowl. In addition a ninja could also wear the kote and suneate which were typical of samurai armour. All of this ensemble would have been reasonably lightweight.

Weapons

Naturally the most important weapon for a ninja was the katana. However, the one this particular individual chose was generally shorter and straighter than normal because it would be easier to carry around and conceal. A ninja used his sword not just to defend himself and kill enemies but to extend his line of reach when in the dark corridors of castles. This involved holding the sword out as far as it would go whilst balancing the scabbard on its tip and gripping the scabbard's suspensory cords in his teeth to ensure that it didn't fall off. If the ninja found an enemy he would drop the scabbard and lunge forward with the sword in the direction of the adversary. The sword could also help the ninja to gain some extra height if he needed to climb a wall by leaning the weapon up against it. The ninja could then step onto its hilt and loop the suspensory cord around his foot so that when he climbed the wall he could pull the sword up.

Other weapons included clawed knuckle-dusters called tekken which were iron objects and were actually originally designed to aid climbing. A similar artefact was the hokode or hand claws. Again these were to aid climbing and consisted of a number of sharp iron thimbles which slotted on to the ninja's finger tips and gave the wearer's hands something of a demonic appearance. If push came to shove they could be used as anti-personnel weapons.

The famous ninja throwing stars or shuriken were also sometimes carried and were usually carried in a band containing up to five. These were a selection of iron pieces cut into star shapes and usually had four or more sharp points. They would be thrown in a spinning motion but weren't designed to be a primary weapon rather to serve as a distraction if the ninja needed to make a quick escape. Speculation debates whether these weapons were tipped with poison but it is unlikely as the ninja would be in danger of poisoning himself when handling them. Probably more than any other weapon or item of equipment in the ninja's arsenal the shuriken symbolised these assassins and saboteurs most of all. A fully fledged martial art emerged based on the use of the shuriken called shuriken-jutsu. Darts were also used.

Although firearms must have been known to ninja the matchlock arquebus would be an unlikely assassin's weapon and the wheel-lock pistol arrived to Japan too late for them to be used in war. However, explosive devices of Chinese manufacture were used. Soft-cased bombs built round a paper or wicker carton were used to release poison gas or smoke or to merely create an explosive sound to cause alarm. Bombs made from pottery or iron could contain fragments of iron, arquebus balls or broken pottery and were used as anti-personal weapons; smaller versions could be thrown like grenades. Larger devices could be used to blast through a castle's plaster walls. Sometimes a ninja might carry a hyakuraiju, which consisted of a number of small cases of gunpowder strung together on a length of rope. The idea behind this was that the ninja could ignite them so that they caused a series of explosions thereby giving the illusion of a greater number of assailants in the vicinity.

As assassins it was necessary for ninja to be competent with a bow. Smaller versions were made so that they could be more easily carried and could even be taken apart.

Equipment

To impede and slow down pursuers ninja carried caltrops or maki bishi. Iron caltrops or tetsu bishi were shaped like a tetrahedron so that one prong was always pointing upwards. As samurai wore very light footwear these spikes could easily penetrate their soles. An alternative to the tetsu bishi existed in the form of the dried seed pod of the water chestnut. This natural caltrop dried into a shape with a number of sharp prongs.

A useful climbing tool was called a uchikagi. It consisted of an iron hook mounted on a wooden handle and the ninja would hold one in each hand to enable him to grip onto the surface to be climbed. It could also be used on the descent. Spiked climbing devices could also be worn for the feet called tekkokagi. An ingenious climbing tool was a folding ladder made from sections of bamboo. Rope was threaded through each section and a hook was attached to the top. When this was pulled tight the ladder would take shape although the whole device was a bit flimsy. Another climbing device was the shinobigama, which was another version of the agricultural implement called the kasuri-gama, and this consisted of a length of chain attached to a sickle. The chain had a weight on one end and it could be used by the ninja to entangle opponents like a lasso. The sickle possessed a small sharp blade that was sheathed when not in use but was used as a weapon when necessary. The specialised version used by ninja was called a shinobi-gama. Another climbing apparatus was a light-weight collapsible ladder consisting of shoot bamboo sections. Rope ladders, however, were also used. Another device used for scaling vertical surfaces was the shinobi kumade, which was a collapsible sectioned bamboo pole with a hooked rope attachment.

There were a number of tools at the ninja's disposal in order to gain entry to a building. One was called a kunai or gouger which looked something like a broad-bladed knife and was ideal to scrape and cut through the wattle and daub walls of Japanese castles. Another item called a tsubogiri looked like a two-pronged fork and was used to prize open the planking of wooden walls and flooring and could also allow for the use of a thin saw called a shikoro. This consisted of three or four metal thin metal sections that could be folded into a single thin strip and then opened out to form a serrated blade or saw. This was ideally used in conjunction with the tsubogiri which created a space large enough for the thin saw to be inserted and for the ninja to begin sawing a space large enough for him to enter.

In keeping with the ninja's spying activities a device called a saoto hikigane was used to listen to sounds through walls or doors. It was not unlike a speaking trumpet and consisted of a tapered metal cylinder which, when pressed against a wall with the ninja's ear touching the other end, allowed him to listen in to conversations and hear the activity of potential enemies.

The ninja used other ingenious devices to aid them on their missions. One was the aptly named 'water spider'. This consisted of a light wooden sections linked into a circle with a central 'slipper' for the wearer's feet. The idea was to give more stability when walking across swampy or marshy ground and not for traversing water. Another water aid was the use of floats linked together as well as bucket-like floats called ukidaru: the ninja put a foot in each one and would use them to cross water, although it is very questionable how successful he would have been.

Campaigns

The audacity of the shinobi is summed up very well at the campaign waged against a retainer of Rokkaku Yoshikata called Dodo at Sawayama castle in 1558. After failing to successfully siege the fortification Rokkaku hired a ninja from Iga called Tateoka Doshun. He brought with him a team of 48 ninja, 4 of whom were from Koga province. Tateoka used deception brilliantly to gain access to the castle, something which he called bakemono-jutsu or 'ghost technique'. He had several replicas of paper lanterns bearing the Dodo family mon and simply walked straight in through the front gate! Once inside the ninja began to set fire to the castle. Dodo was so surprised that he concluded that traitors were to blame but despite his garrison's best efforts the fire spread and panic ensued. Rokkaku then ordered an assault and took the castle with ease.

The last time ninja were used in battle, as described earlier, was at Shimabara in 1638. What started out as a peasant protest turned into a full-scale revolt. The persecuted Christians of the province also joined the rebel farmers and together they fortified an old castle at Hara. The shogun at this time was Tokugawa Iemitsu and he sent a large force from Edo to deal with the rebellion, which also included number of ninja. They surveyed and scouted the castle and its locality; an account even states that a number of them entered the rebel stronghold as and when they pleased. In their first attack the ninja apparently stole thirteen precious bags of provisions and obtained secret passwords. Six days later a small group of ninja managed to gain access with the help of hyakuraiju, the belt of timed explosives because the garrison was now on heightened alert. Despite a mishap of a ninja falling into a pit the group was successful at obtaining more information and they even went further into the complex to tear down one of the Christian banners to keep as a souvenir. They managed to escape but were grievously wounded by arrow and gun fire when they descended the castle walls. Over the proceeding days the ninja conducted more raids into the castle and captured several outer walls. Not long afterwards the Tokugawa army carried out a successful assault which the ninja, in their last major act, assisted.

Further Reading

Secrets of the Samurai - Oscar Ratti and Adele Westbrook.

Warriors of Medieval Japan - Stephen Turnbull.